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AN ESSAY CONCERNING HUMAN UNDERSTANDING
BY
JOHN LOCKE
[Based on the 2d Edition] CONTENTS OF THE SECOND VOLUME
BOOK III. OF WORDS.
CHAP.
I. OF WORDS OR LANGUAGE IN GENERAL
II. OF THE SIGNIFICATION OF WORDS
III. OF GENERAL TERMS
IV. OF THE NAMES OF SIMPLE IDEAS
V. OF THE NAMES OF MIXED MODES AND RELATIONS
VI. OF THE NAMES OF SUBSTANCES
VII. OF PARTICLES
VIII. OF ABSTRACT AND CONCRETE TERMS
IX. OF THE IMPERFECTION OF WORDS
X. OF THE ABUSE OF WORDS
XI. OF THE REMEDIES OF THE FOREGOING IMPERFECTION AND ABUSES
BOOK IV. OF KNOWLEDGE AND PROBABILITY.
CHAP.
I. OF KNOWLEDGE IN GENERAL
II. OF THE DEGREES OF OUR KNOWLEDGE
III. OF THE EXTENT OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE
IV. OF THE REALITY OF OUR KNOWLEDGE
V. OF TRUTH IN GENERAL
VI. OF UNIVERSAL PROPOSITIONS: THEIR TRUTH AND CERTAINTY
VII. OF MAXIMS
VIII. OF TRIFLING PROPOSITIONS
IX. OF OUR THREEFOLD KNOWLEDGE OF EXISTENCE
X. OF OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE EXISTENCE OF A GOD
XI. OF OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE EXISTENCE OF OTHER THINGS
XII. OF THE IMPROVEMENT OF OUR KNOWLEDGE
XIII. SOME OTHER CONSIDERATIONS CONCERNING OUR KNOWLEDGE
XIV. OF JUDGMENT
XV. OF PROBABILITY
XVI. OF THE DEGREES OF ASSENT
XVII. OF REASON [AND SYLLOGISM]
XVIII. OF FAITH AND REASON, AND THEIR DISTINCT PROVINCES
XIX. [OF ENTHUSIASM]
XX. OF WRONG ASSENT, OR ERROR
XXI. OF THE DIVISION OF THE SCIENCES
BOOK III
OF WORDS
CHAPTER I.
OF WORDS OR LANGUAGE IN GENERAL.
1. Man fitted to form articulated Sounds.
God, having designed man for a sociable creature, made him not only with
an inclination, and under a necessity to have fellowship with those of
his own kind, but furnished him also with language, which was to be
the great instrument and common tie of society. Man, therefore, had by
nature his organs so fashioned, as to be fit to frame articulate sounds,
which we call words. But this was not enough to produce language; for
parrots, and several other birds, will be taught to make articulate
sounds distinct enough, which yet by no means are capable of language.
2. To use these sounds as Signs of Ideas.
Besides articulate sounds, therefore, it was further necessary that he
should be able to use these sounds as signs of internal conceptions; and
to make them stand as marks for the ideas within his own mind, whereby
they might be made known to others, and the thoughts of men's minds be
conveyed from one to another.
3. To make them general Signs.
But neither was this sufficient to make words so useful as they ought to
be. It is not enough for the perfection of language, that sounds can
be made signs of ideas, unless those signs can be so made use of as to
comprehend several particular things: for the multiplication of words
would have perplexed their use, had every particular thing need of
a distinct name to be signified by. [To remedy this inconvenience,
language had yet a further improvement in the use of GENERAL TERMS,
whereby one word was made to mark a multitude of particular existences:
which advantageous use of sounds was obtained only by the difference of
the ideas they were made signs of: those names becoming general, which
are made to stand for GENERAL IDEAS, and those remaining particular,
where the IDEAS they are used for are PARTICULAR.]
4. To make them signify the absence of positive Ideas.
Besides these names which stand for ideas, there be other words which
men make use of, not to signify any idea, but the want or absence of
some ideas, simple or complex, or all ideas together; such as are NIHIL
in Latin, and in English, IGNORANCE and BARRENNESS. All which negative
or privative words cannot be said properly to belong to, or signify no
ideas: for then they would be perfectly insignificant sounds; but they
relate to positive ideas, and signify their absence.
5. Words ultimately derived from such as signify sensible Ideas.
It may also lead us a little towards the original of all our notions and
knowledge, if we remark how great a dependence our words have on common
sensible ideas; and how those which are made use of to stand for actions
and notions quite removed from sense, have their rise from thence, and
from obvious sensible ideas are transferred to more abstruse
significations, and made to stand for ideas that come not under the
cognizance of our senses; v.g. to IMAGINE, APPREHEND, COMPREHEND,
ADHERE, CONCEIVE, INSTIL, DISGUST, DISTURBANCE, TRANQUILLITY, &c., are
all words taken from the operations of sensible things, and applied to
certain modes of thinking. SPIRIT, in its primary signification, is
breath; ANGEL, a messenger: and I doubt not but, if we could trace them
to their sources, we should find, in all languages, the names which
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